Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS) is one of the most economically important diseases of swine. This disease was first detected in the United States in 1987 (Keffaber 1989) and in Europe in 1990 (Wensvoort et al. 1991). Molecular analysis of the prototype PRRS viruses (PRRSV) VR-2332 and Lelystad (U.S. and European isolates, respectively) has suggested that divergently evolved strains emerged on two continents almost simultaneously, perhaps due to similar changes in swine management practices (Murtaugh et al. 1995; Nelsen et al. 1999). Since its initial emergence, this virus has spread worldwide, and PRRSV of the European genotype has been detected in U.S. swine herds (Ropp et al. 2004). PRRS is characterized by severe and sometimes fatal respiratory disease and reproductive failure, but also predisposes infected pigs to bacterial pathogens as well as other viral pathogens (Benfield et al. 1992), and is a key component of the economically significant Porcine Respiratory Disease Complex (PRDC). The most consistent pathological lesions caused by PRRSV during acute infection are interstitial pneumonia and mild lymphocytic encephalitis (Plagemann 1996). After the acute phase of PRRSV infection, which is typically characterized by viremia and clinical disease, many pigs fully recover yet carry a low-level viral infection for an extended period of time. These “carrier” pigs are persistently infected with PRRSV and shed the virus, either intermittently or continuously, and may infect naïve pigs following direct or indirect contact. Under experimental conditions, persistent infection with PRRSV has been well documented (Albina et al. 1994; Allende et al. 2000; Benfield et al. 1998; Christopherhennings et al. 1995; Sur et al. 1996; Yoon et al. 1993). Most notably, infectious virus has been recovered for up to 157 days post-infection (Wills et al. 1997). Tissue macrophages and monocytes are the major target cells during both acute and persistent infection (Molitor et al. 1997), although pneumocytes and epithelial germ cells of the testes have also been shown to be infected (Sur et al. 1996; Sur et al. 1997).
The etiologic agent of PRRS is an enveloped, positive-stranded RNA virus that is a member of the Arteriviridae family, order Nidovirales. Other members of the Arteriviridae include Lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus (LDV) of mice, Equine arteritis virus (EAV), and Simian hemorrhagic fever virus (SHFV). Analysis of genomic sequence data reveals extensive diversity among strains of PRRSV but also well-conserved domains (Andreyev et al. 1997; Meng 2000; Meng et al. 1995). The genome organization of PRRSV is similar to that of other Arteriviruses, with the genomic RNA functioning as the messenger RNA for the ORF1a replicase proteins (Plagemann 1996). ORFs1a and 1b comprise approximately 80% of the viral genome and encode the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase as well as polyproteins that are processed into other nonstructural proteins (Snijder and Meulenberg 1998). Using Lelystad virus, ORFs 2-7 have been determined to encode the viral structural proteins. The protein encoded by ORF 5 (GP5) and M (Van Breedam et al. 2010b) may play a role in the induction of apoptosis by PRRSV (Suarez et al. 1996; Sur et al. 1997) and is thought to be the viral attachment protein in the closely related Lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus. The minor envelope glycoproteins GP2a and GP4 of the PRRSV interact with CD163 (Das et al. 2010). There are data suggesting that binding to SIGLEC1 (sialic acid binding Ig-like lectin 1) is necessary for entry into the cells, and in fact dual binding to both SIGLEC1 and CD163 appears to be needed for viral infection (Van Gorp et al. 2008).
Many characteristics of both PRRSV pathogenesis (especially at the molecular level) and epizootiology are poorly understood thus making control efforts difficult. To gain a better understanding, infectious clones for PRRSV have been developed (Nielsen et al. 2003). Today producers often vaccinate swine against PRRSV with modified-live attenuated strains or killed virus vaccines. However, current vaccines often do not provide satisfactory protection, due to both the strain variation and inadequate stimulation of the immune system. A protective immune response is possible since it has been demonstrated that previous exposure can provide complete protection when pigs are challenged with a homologous strain of PRRSV (Lager et al. 1999). However, protective immunity has never been consistently demonstrated for challenge with heterologous strains. In addition to concerns about the efficacy of the available PRRSV vaccines, there is strong evidence that the modified-live vaccine currently in use can persist in individual pigs and swine herds and accumulate mutations (Mengeling et al. 1999), as has been demonstrated with virulent field isolates following experimental infection of pigs (Rowland et al. 1999). Furthermore, it has been shown that vaccine virus is shed in the semen of vaccinated boars (Christopherhennings et al. 1997). As an alternative to vaccination, some experts are advocating a “test and removal” strategy in breeding herds (Dee and Molitor 1998). Successful use of this strategy depends on removal of all pigs that are either acutely or persistently infected with PRRSV, followed by strict controls to prevent reintroduction of the virus. The difficulty, and much of the expense, associated with this strategy is that there is little known about the pathogenesis of persistent PRRSV infection and thus there are no reliable techniques to identify persistently infected pigs.
A putative cellular receptor for PRRSV has been identified by monoclonal antibodies, purified and sequenced (Vanderheij den et al. 2003; Wissink et al. 2003) and named SIGLEC1. This molecule has similarity to sialoadhesins and was shown to mediate entry of PRRSV into non-susceptible cells but a recombinant cell line expressing this receptor failed to support productive replication of PRRSV (Vanderheijden et al. 2003). Importantly, the sialic acid molecules present on the PRRSV surface have been shown to be needed for infection of alveolar macrophages. Following viral binding to this receptor, entry of PRRSV occurs by receptor-mediated endocytosis (Nauwynck et al. 1999). The key role of sialoadhesin for PRRSV entry was established by experiments in which viral uptake was demonstrated in PK15 cells (a cell line non-permissive for PRRSV replication) that were transfected with cloned porcine sialoadhesin, but not in un-transfected control PK15 cells (Vanderheij den et al. 2003). Further research by this same group demonstrated that interactions between the sialic acid on the PRRSV virion surface and the sialoadhesin molecule were essential for PRRSV infection of alveolar macrophages (Delputte and Nauwynck 2004). A reverse strategy, i.e. removing the sialic acid on the surface of the PRRSV or preincubation with sialic acid-specific lectins also resulted in blocking of the infection (Delputte et al. 2004; Delputte and Nauwynck 2004; Van Breedam et al. 2010b). Independent of the specific research on PRRSV entry, site-directed mutagenesis has been used to identify six key amino acid residues required for sialic acid binding by murine sialoadhesin (Vinson et al. 1996), which is 69% identical to porcine sialoadhesin. Importantly, all six amino acids identified in murine sialoadhesin are also conserved in the porcine molecule.
SIGLEC1 is a transmembrane receptor of a family of sialic acid binding immunoglobulin-like lectins. It was first described as a sheep erythrocyte binding receptor of mouse macrophages (Crocker and Gordon 1986). It is expressed on macrophages in hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues. SIGLECs consist of an N-terminal V-set domain containing the sialic acid binding site followed by a variable number of C2-set domains, and then a transmembrane domain and a cytoplasmic tail. In contrast to other SIGLECs, SIGLEC1 does not have a tyrosine-based motif in the cytoplasmic tail (Oetke et al. 2006). The sialic acid-binding site was mapped to the N-terminal immunoglobulin-like V-set domain (Nath et al. 1995). The R116 residue appears to be one of the important amino acids for sialic acid binding (Crocker et al. 1999; Delputte et al. 2007). Thus, an intact N-terminal domain is both necessary and sufficient for PRRSV binding to SIGLEC1 (Van Breedam et al. 2010a). A knockout of SIGLEC1 was reported in mice and resulted in mice that were viable and fertile and showed no developmental abnormalities (Oetke et al. 2006). However, these mice had subtle changes in B- and T-cell populations and a reduced immunoglobulin M level.
The infection process of the PRRSV begins with initial binding to heparan sulfate on the surface of the alveolar macrophage. Secure binding then occurs to sialoadhesin (SIGLEC1, also referred to as CD169 or SN). The virus is then internalized via clatherin-mediated endocytosis. Another molecule, CD163, then facilitates the uncoating of the virus in the endosome (Van Breedam et al. 2010a). The viral genome is released and the cell infected.
CD163 has 17 exons and the protein is composed of an extracellular region with 9 scavenger receptor cysteine-rich (SRCR) domains, a transmembrane segment, and a short cytoplasmic tail. Several different variants result from differential splicing of a single gene (Ritter et al. 1999a; Ritter et al. 1999b). Much of this variation is accounted for by the length of the cytoplasmic tail.
CD163 has a number of important functions, including acting as a haptoglobin-hemoglobin scavenger receptor. Elimination of free hemoglobin in the blood is an important function of CD163 as the heme group can be very toxic (Kristiansen et al. 2001). CD163 has a cytoplasmic tail that facilitates endocytosis. Mutation of this tail results in decreased haptoglobin-hemoglobin complex uptake (Nielsen et al. 2006). Other functions of C163 include erythroblast adhesion (SRCR2), being a TWEAK receptor (SRCR1-4 & 6-9), a bacterial receptor (SRCRS), an African Swine Virus receptor (Sanchez-Torres et al. 2003), and a potential role as an immune-modulator (discussed in (Van Gorp et al. 2010a)).